Kaja
Burt-Davies, University of Southeastern Norway
Annica
Andersson, University of Southeastern Norway
Authors’
Notes
Kaja Burt-Davies https://orcid.org/0009-0001-0788-9450
Annica Andersson https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1897-7322
This research is funded
by the Norwegian Research Council’s Finnut-granted
project Mathematics Education in Indigenous and Migrational
contexts: Storylines, Cultures and Strength-Based Pedagogies (Prof. Annica
Andersson, principal investigator). For further communications, please contact Kaja
Burt-Davies at kaja.burtdavies@usn.no.
Competing interests:
The authors declare no competing interests.
This article presents a strength-based, cross-age
mentorship program where second and sixth-grade students in a multicultural
primary school collaborate in mathematics. The sixth-grade students serve as
mentors/tutors for the younger students. Drawing on positioning theory and
storylines, we have focused on the mentor’s outcome, specifically how the
program can help mentors position themselves as mathematics learners. The study
presented is a single study based on observations and subsequent interviews
with twenty students and their two teachers. The identified storylines suggest
that well-structured strength-based cross-age collaboration in mathematics can
create learning-focused relationships and learning contexts that enrich mentors
(and mentees) both socially and academically. In this strength-based learning
environment, mentors are valued for their personal strengths and mathematical
proficiency, allowing them to experience a sense of achievement and pride.
Keywords: strength-based pedagogies, cross-age collaboration,
multicultural mathematics education, positioning theory, mentoring, classroom
tensions
Strength-Based Pedagogies in Mathematics Education: “I Like Being Your
Little Teacher”
In the Norwegian tradition of
implemented cross-age mentorship programs, known as “fadderordning,”
first-grade students are paired, individually or in small groups, with a mentor
or a mentoring group from the same school. These mentors, usually four years
older, provide guidance and support within the school environment. The duration
of the collaboration varies. At some schools, the partnership dissolves after a
few months, while at other schools, it lasts until the mentor’s graduation.
Aligned with UNICEF’s (n.d) mentorship
program ‘One for all—all for one,’ which emphasizes the Rights of the Child, the
aim is to cultivate inclusive school environments where students are taught to
value diversity. Following the goals of UNICEF, the multicultural suburban
school where the data collection took place has a long tradition of cross-age
peer mentoring. The motivation behind such a program aligns with the
perspectives of Slavin and Cooper (1999),
who posit that positive social interactions among students within heterogeneous
groups have the potential to forge cross-ethnic friendships and diminish racial
stereotyping, discrimination, and prejudice, with the ultimate goal of creating
a belonging and a positive school environment.
This article examines a
strength-based mentorship program in a multicultural primary school in Norway,
where two teachers extended the typical cross-age peer mentorship program to
foster relationships across age groups, not only for relational purposes, but
also to provide students with opportunities to discuss and apply mathematics.
Within their regular classroom setting, the mentors demonstrated tensions
related to cultures, languages, and (unacceptable) behaviour –issues that
teachers and school administration have grappled with since the mentors started
school. A plethora of resources, including increased adult presence, rules, and
structures, have previously been deployed and evaluated by the teachers and
school leaders, though with minimal impact. This article illustrates the
influence of cross-grade peer mentoring on mentors' perceptions and experiences
related to mathematics, even when mentors face challenges, both socially and
academically, within their own classroom environment. More specifically, we
investigate how cross-grade peer mentoring can positively influence mentors’
positions related to mathematics. We propose that a well-developed cross-age
peer mentorship program can serve as a context for cultivating learning
environments that resonate with principles of strength-based pedagogies.
The concept of Cross-Age
Peer Mentoring is used for various arrangements where older and younger
students spend time together during school hours. The
framework and objectives of the program presented in this article align with Karcher’s (2014)
definition, which, in short, states that a middle or high school mentor meets
regularly with the, ideally, minimum two years younger mentee for more than 20
sessions. They engage in conversations, play, or structured activities, where
the aim is to build a close relationship, where the mentee receives empathy,
praise, and attention. Program staff, teachers in this case, should prioritize
this relationship development as the key mechanism for change. We emphasize
that the cross-age mentorship program highlighted in this article integrates
aspects of both mentoring and tutoring. Nonetheless, to align with the school's
objective of promoting developmental relationships, we use 'mentor/mentoring'
when discussing relationship-building, and 'tutor/tutoring' when addressing mathematics
learning.
A significant part of
research on cross-age mentoring predominantly centres on the program's impact
on mentees. While the mentees constitute an integral aspect of this research,
our study primarily focuses on the outcomes of the mentors.
Despite limited
research on mentor outcomes, a literature review investigated the impact of
peer and cross-age tutoring in mathematics on minority students (Robinson et al., 2005). The review indicates
that cross-age peer mentoring fosters positive attitudes, behaviours, and
academic advancements for both tutees and tutors. An early study showed that
Australian tutors in the fifth and sixth grades significantly enhanced the
operational mathematics achievements of their tutees. Moreover, the
improvements observed in both the tutors’ and tutees’ mathematics achievements
were considerably greater than those recorded for the students in the control
group (Sharpley et al., 1983). Positive academic results were also found in a
brief five-week study with students aged 7 and 11 (Topping et al., 2003). Using mathematical games, a noticeable
increase in the use of mathematical terminology, strategic dialogue, and
praise, along with a decrease in procedural talk among tutors and tutees, was
observed. The project also appeared to successfully raise and improve the
amount and quality of interactive mathematical discussions between students.
Additionally, the tutors' general social and communication behaviours were
enhanced. Furthermore, a study by Karcher (2009)
reports that mentors in grades 10 and 11 made substantial gains in
school-related connectedness and self-esteem compared to their peers, who were not
involved in a mentoring program. This conclusion was drawn from surveys
conducted with trained mentors participating in an after-school program.
Among the few recent
studies on cross-age peer tutoring in mathematics, a study involving middle
school tutors and first-grade tutees with low mathematical skills reported that
the majority of the tutees' teachers observed measurable improvements in mathematics
and enhanced attitudes toward the subject (Haynes & Brendle, 2019).
Conversely, most tutors' teachers did not observe a noticeable improvement in
the tutors' mathematical abilities; however, we note that the age difference
and the lower-than-expected competency level of the tutees may have influenced
this outcome. Still, the tutors' teachers endorsed the cross-age tutoring
experience, noting that the tutors developed increased leadership skills and
confidence and found assisting others to be rewarding. The teachers'
experiences align with Riessman's (1965) helper's
theory, which posits that 'helpers'—mentors in this context—benefit from their
position through mechanisms like feeling worthwhile, self-persuasion, and
experiencing the status of a helper position, suggesting that helping others
can foster efficiency and motivation. Barahona et al. (2023) conducted an
observational study in middle schools primarily serving Hispanic students in
the US, where the tutors were two grade levels above the tutees. Barahona et
al. (2023) discovered that the strength of this cross-age program was closely
tied to positive emotional experiences. The study indicated that the tutees
exhibited favourable attitudes toward their tutors, seemingly enjoying the
cross-age collaboration. The relationships between tutors and tutees were
characterized by warmth and support, further enhancing the positive experience.
Notably, tutors also appeared to derive satisfaction from this program.
However, Barahona et al. (2023) identified weaknesses in the program's
implementation related to the quality of instruction. Key issues included a
lack of positive reinforcement and ineffective use of class time.
This review of
cross-age peer mentoring and tutoring in mathematics education underscores that
cross-age collaboration is underrepresented in mathematics education research.
Despite this, the existing findings show potential benefits and effectiveness
of cross-age peer mentoring, suggesting that cross-age collaboration could be a
significant yet largely unexplored resource in mathematics.
Our two-fold aim is to
demonstrate that a cross-age mentorship program can serve as a beneficial
learning environment when classroom norms and the learning environment in
mathematics classrooms fall short of satisfactory standards, and that
mentee-mentor collaborations can foster strength-based learning opportunities
that could alter and improve students' perceptions of themselves as both
individuals and mathematics learners. To examine how strength-based learning
processes can support mentors in positioning themselves as learners of
mathematics, we posited the following research question: How can a
strength-based cross-age peer mentorship program in primary school support
mentors in assuming positions beneficial for learning mathematics?
In positioning theory,
Davies and Harré (1990) highlight the dynamic aspects
of self-understanding in contrast to the static nature of the concept of
"role" (p. 43). They propose that ‘positioning’ directs attention to
how we perceive ourselves in dialogues, using the terms ‘positioning’ and ‘subject
position’ based on existing narratives. Metaphorically, positionings are used
to symbolize relationships (Herbel-Eisenmann
& Wagner, 2010) and occur through words and actions grounded in one
or more such narratives as in any statement; hints in the choice of words, or
related actions bring forth images of familiar storylines and positions within
that story (Harré & van Langenhove, 1999).
Harré (2012) described a position as a
“cluster of beliefs with respect to the rights and duties of the members of a
group of people to act in certain ways” (p. 196). This element implies that
cultural traditions and boundaries influence people's actions to follow
already-established patterns. The “positioning process” (Herbel-Eisenmann et al., 2015, p. 190) is thus restricted by the
cluster of beliefs and the social and logical possibilities of a given context
because “A position can be looked at as a loose set of rights and duties that
limit the possibilities of action” (Harré &
Moghaddam, 2003 p. 5). In other words, the actions of individuals within
a group are influenced by the collective beliefs and expectations present in
their social environment.
While we constantly negotiate positions for ourselves,
consciously or unconsciously, we also participate in shaping the positions of
others. When others take or are given a place in a shared experience, “whether
explicit or implicit, a speaker makes available a subject position which the
other speaker in the normal course of events would take up. A person can be
said thus to ‘have been positioned’ by another speaker” (Davies & Harré, 1990, p. 43). By resisting a position, alternative
positions become available (Wagner &
Herbel-Eisenmann, 2009). In this manner, cultural storylines and
interactions influence the “production of selves” (Davies & Harré, 1990, p. 62) and others. As importantly emphasized
by Davies and Harré, we also want to underscore the
presence of agency and choice in the positioning process. Not all individuals
and groups have their actions recognized or acknowledged by those in positions
of power, resulting in significant limitations on their ability to act.
We define taking a
position as a mathematics learner as actively making choices that foster the
development of mathematical competence. To support students in embracing these
positions, learning environments must consistently facilitate such processes. From
a societal perspective, it is imperative that students are afforded these
opportunities, as societal growth is enhanced by individuals who appreciate,
understand, and effectively employ mathematics.
As mathematics teachers
and researchers, we have recognized that students' attitudes often resonate
with one or several recognizable patterns that validate their self-perception
and position as learners or non-learners (Andersson et al., 2015). In
positioning theory, these patterns are referred to as storylines and are used
to shape and make sense of “our own and others’ lives” (Davies & Harré, 1990, p. 4). In the context of mathematics
education, Herbel-Eisenmann et al. (2015)
describe storylines as “the ongoing repertoires that are already shared
culturally, or they can be invented as participants interact” (p. 15).
The cultural element in
storylines is intrinsically linked to positions through implicit
"taken-for-granted systems of rights and duties" (Harré,
2012, p. 191). These sets of rights and duties vary across cultures,
influencing how individuals interpret and navigate situations. Adding more
depth to storylines, Herbel-Eisenmann et al.
(2016) explain that, at certain times, relevant storylines serve as the
backdrop for enacted positionings. In other words, our self-understanding and
our perceptions of others depend on the context and culture and can change
based on the situations we encounter and the storylines available at any given
time.
This study concentrates
on a micro-sociological unit (Delgado-Gaitan
& Trueba, 2023) of two classes engaged in cross-age mentorship. This
group possesses "specific sets of experiences shared collectively by
individuals of those units but interpreted by each in a different way" (Delgado-Gaitan & Trueba, 2023, p. 25). In
the context of this study, this proposes that although students engage in
shared experiences and storylines, their interpretations of these shared
elements differ. Consequently, how they express these storylines can vary from
one individual to another.
Despite frameworks
established by other scholars, it is challenging to concisely describe a
storyline, as it can be explicitly articulated or implicitly recognized. In
this research, storylines were identified through interviews with students and
the first author's observation. Within this micro-sociological unit, we sought
storylines that might explain how the cross-age peer mentorship program helps
mentors assume positions that are beneficial for learning mathematics. To do
so, we defined storylines as ongoing repertoires in interviews that are (1)
recognized by others, (2) cultural, as they are connected to a specific
micro-sociological unit, and (3) impact students' actions.
The two teachers who developed
the focused cross-age mentorship program take a strength-based pedagogical
perspective on their students and possess an approach that associates with
culturally relevant pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, 1995), culturally responsive
teaching (Gay, 2018), and Funds of Knowledge (Gonzalez et al., 2005). Despite their diversity, these
pedagogies share a common thread: a shift in
focus from a deficit to a strength-based perspective. This shift represents a
change in focus from education aiming to improve what students “lack” to
acknowledging and nurturing what students possess regarding their skills,
abilities, potential, and (cultural) experiences.
The teachers also emphasize elements of Silverman et al.’s
(2023) 'universal strengths approach,' which “recognizes that all people […]
have inherent strengths that are in part determined by their life experiences”
(p. 256). Inspired by positive psychology (Peterson & Seligman, 2004), Silverman et
al. (2023) illuminate various types of strengths. Character strengths define
the best in people. They are stable and general yet influenced by context and
thus capable of change. Examples include open-mindedness, fairness, and
patience. Signature strengths represent a specific set of character strengths
most distinctive to an individual. These are strengths “that a person owns,
celebrates, and frequently exercises” (Peterson
& Seligman, 2004, p. 18). The "exercise of signature strengths
is fulfilling" and “convey[s] the motivational and emotional features of
fulfillment with terms like excitement, yearning, inevitability, discovery, and
invigoration” (p. 18). Silverman et al. (2023)
also identify “identity-specific strengths approach,” which “recognizes
people’s systemically marginalized identities and associated lived experiences
as a direct source of strengths that can help them succeed and contribute to
their societies, regardless of how these identities and experiences differ from
those of privileged individuals” (p. 256).
From a mathematics education perspective,
focusing on students' strengths can be a turning point for fostering a more
inclusive and empowering learning environment. Additionally, the combination of
strength-based pedagogies and positioning theory is particularly compelling for
the field of mathematics education because, together, these theories provide a
framework for understanding and discussing how students perceive themselves as
learners or non-learners in mathematics, which, in our opinion, is the most critical
aspect of mathematics education.
The data collection
site is a large, multicultural primary school located in a municipality neighbouring
Oslo, Norway's capital city. Both authors know the participating teachers and
school leaders well. In recent years, the school has made a deliberate effort
to foster diversity within its community. One key strategy for achieving this
has been the development of the cross-age mentorship program. As part of the school's tradition, the
cross-age mentorship program dates back to the 1990s. The program emphasizes
active engagement and relationships between mentors and mentees in various
contexts, primarily during break time and extracurricular activities such as
forest trips, games, and sports. While mentoring initially involved one-on-one interactions, the current standard
practice involves group mentoring.
Kaja, the first author,
initiated her observational study in February 2022, focusing on acquainting
herself with the mentor class, a class struggling with behavioural issues and
adherence to classroom norms, aiming to explore strength-based pedagogies in
mathematics. Unexpectedly, during the spring semester of
2023, Kaja learned about the established cross-age mentorship program in which
the now sixth-grade students mentored second-grade students during mathematics
classes. To clarify the research
context, we briefly summarize Kaja’s initial observations and field notes:
In February 2022, I, Kaja, visited the teachers and
classes in the primary school that had agreed to participate in my research
project. I immediately understood that one of the classes faced challenges.
After the first week, Grete, the teacher, apologized for the student's behaviour
and explained that the class had struggled with challenging attitudes and
behaviour since they started school. With a twinkle in her eye, Grete also said
something like, “Well, at least in this class, we have real challenges. It’s
not the kind of class you read about in textbooks”. And she was right; the
classroom was chaotic. After a few weeks, the situation escalated. The class
was, of course, divided into separate groups, and some students were guided to
other classrooms, but altogether, there were seven adults involved to handle 18
5th graders. Frustrated after a lesson days later, Grete said: “The
only thing that works with this class is to take a bus or be mentors.” I noted
her statement in my notebook but didn’t think to ask her about the mentoring,
as this is a regular thing in Norwegian schools. Months later, when the mentors
had started 6th grade, I saw the mentorship program in action. The
mentees, a class of 2nd graders, had their classroom just across the
corridor from the mentors' classroom. In groups of 2–6 students from both
classes (carefully assigned by the teachers), the 6th graders, now
positioned as mentors, demonstrated remarkable skill and dedication in
assisting their mentees with mathematics tasks. It was
almost as if a magical enchantment had spread over the students. The atmosphere was light, and the students seemed
content and exhibited a sense of joy. The mentors read out problems, counted on
their fingers, and demonstrated with pen and paper to their mentees. When I
overheard one of the more challenging sixth graders addressing a second grader:
“You have to read the problem first, if not, you won’t understand what to do.
Listen, I’ll read it out loud to you”, I immediately felt compelled to
investigate why the cross-age mentorship program impacted the mentors'
positioning and whether this collaboration was also beneficial for the mentors’
development of mathematical competence.
To gain insight into the program's practical
implementation and to understand the aspects of the change in the mentor's
behaviour, Kaja conducted weekly observations of the cross-age collaboration
over three months in 2023. The students met
between one and three times a week, sometimes for outdoor activities and play,
and at other times, for reading to each other. They met regularly once a week
for mathematics. The duration varied depending on the activity, but mathematics
sessions typically lasted a regular school hour of 60 minutes. Depending on the
activity, older and younger students were grouped, sometimes with a shared task
to solve collaboratively, and other times with assignments tailored to their
grade levels. During mathematics sessions, mentors provided support and
guidance to the mentees, acting like little teachers. In situations involving
joint tasks, there was less guidance and more collaboration. Occasionally,
mentors also taught mentees new games or applications.
During
the participatory observation phase of mathematics classes, Kaja typically
assumed a role similar to that of a teacher. However,
at times, she stepped back to observe group interactions as students engaged
with mathematical tasks. Throughout this period, detailed field notes were
maintained, which later informed the structured interview guides used in interviews
with the teachers, mentors, and mentees.
While this article focuses on the mentors'
benefits of the cross-age mentorship program, their experiences are
intrinsically connected to those of the mentees. To gain a deeper understanding
of the mentors' experiences, interviews were conducted in September and October
2023, with ten mentees now in third grade and ten mentors in seventh grade. The students in the two
classes come from varied backgrounds and reflect typical diversity in terms of
minority language backgrounds, which in and around larger cities in Norway is
slightly over 30% (Directorate for Education and Training, 2022). Some of the
interviewed students are first-generation immigrants with less than two years
in Norway, while others are Norwegian born, with some having native languages
other than Norwegian. The group includes students from socioeconomically
advantaged families and those who have arrived in Norway as refugees,
representing diverse religions and cultural backgrounds. Several of the interviewed
mentors faced behavioural challenges in their regular classroom settings.
Participation in
interviews was voluntary; mentees were asked if
they wanted to be interviewed by their teacher, Sigrid, and the mentors were
asked by Kaja. Given the young age of the students, all
parents and students were clearly and repeatedly informed that participation in
the interview was entirely voluntary and that pseudonyms would be used in line
with approved Norwegian ethical guidelines. All students chose their
pseudonyms. Mentees were interviewed in pairs, while mentors chose to be
interviewed individually, in pairs, or in groups of three. Student interviews
lasted between 20 minutes and an hour, varying based on the group size and the
depth of responses, and centred on their experiences with the mentorship
program. Each interview followed a semi-structured guide and was recorded for
later review.
In August 2023, a joint interview, lasting
approximately two hours, was conducted with Sigrid, the mentee's teacher, and
Grete, the mentor's teacher. Utilizing a semi-structured interview guide, the
objective was to understand the rationale behind their selection of this
specific form of cross-age collaboration in mathematics, and to examine the
practical aspects related to planning and implementation, as well as how the
teachers perceived their intentions materializing in practice. The interview
was audio recorded for accuracy and reference.
To provide a deeper
contextual understanding of this study, we include the teachers'
characterizations of their classes. The mentor's teacher, Grete, gave the
following description in the interview:
A collection of remarkable individuals. […] In
peacetime, they are all lovely children […]. It is demanding because, what can
I say, the combination of students in this class is very unfortunate, quite
simply. That's it. The parents were very determined that they should not be
together, but then there has been some mismatch here in terms of communication
[from kindergarten], or that someone has not bothered to listen, we don't know.
[…] so it has to do with that, quite simply, that those kids should not have
been together.
While this depiction
may seem harsh, it aligns with Kaja's empirical observations. The students
undeniably exhibit remarkable capabilities and skills. However, the persistent
presence of negative tensions significantly undermined the classroom
environment, resulting in a less conducive learning atmosphere. Conversely,
Sigrid, the teacher of the mentee class, described the mentee class as follows:
[...] we were 20 when we started [in first grade]. We
have become a large group [28 students]. I have received many new [students].
Yes, so my class, the way it is now, they are the nicest, kindest, calmest
group I've ever had. Good mix, boys and girls, fantastic parent group. They are
academically strong, they are socially strong, good with each other, concerned
about each other, playing, dancing, singing, committed, I have never had a
group like them.
The teachers involved in this project had not
received specific training in strength-based pedagogical processes.
Nonetheless, their efforts and outlook embody aspects that are consistent with
it. The student groups were
carefully configured with three primary objectives: (1) to nurture
collaboration and friendship within and across grades; (2) to create a learning
environment where students can utilize and develop their strengths; and (3) to
promote the discussion, application, and learning of mathematics. Recognizing
and acknowledging their students' diverse strengths, the teachers leveraged
these strengths to form cross-grade groups. For instance, they grouped students
with similar interests and ensured that uncertain mentees were paired with
compassionate mentors who could also provide thorough mathematical
explanations. Other groups were put together for linguistic purposes. As Sigrid articulated,
“The aim is to assist students in fostering beneficial relationships”. Group
rotations were applied as needed based on teachers' observations. While some
groups remained stable for months or years, others were adjusted when teachers
believed changes would enhance social and academic outcomes.
Building on the work of Herbel-Eisenmann and
Wagner (2010) and Perlander and Sjøberg (2023), we
utilized the concept of positionings as a framework to investigate the
experiences of mentors and mentees within the mentorship program. We analysed
the interviews with mentors and mentees to explore how they ascribed and
claimed positions for themselves and others by defining emotions, roles, rights,
and duties within the given context.
The analytical process
began with transcribing all audio recordings, followed by an inductive
categorization of the text into themes reflecting the students' experiences.
These themes encompassed the students' efforts to support each other's
mathematics learning, the learning opportunities provided by the program, the
responsibilities students held toward one another, and the emotions and
relationships between mentors and mentees. Next, we thoroughly reviewed the
transcripts and identified three key dimensions of the experiences mentors and
mentees shared during the interview: (1) the mentor role, (2) emotions, and (3)
how cross-age collaboration affected the mentors' mathematical competence. During this step, we also reviewed the first author's
field notes, taken during observation phase 2, which supported the three
identified dimensions.
To identify storylines within each dimension, we
adapted a four-component process inspired by Perlander
and Sjøberg (2023). Specific attention was directed towards personal pronouns
as indicators of positioning (Fairclough, 2001) and self- and other-positioning (Harré & van
Langenhove, 2010). This involved examining how
mentors and mentees positioned themselves and others to belong or to be
excluded from a position. Additionally, we
identified statements that correlated positioning with cultural connection (Herbel-Eisenmann et al., 2015) and elements
relating to rights and duties (Harré, 2012; Harré & Moghaddam, 2003), often connected to emotional
factors influencing students' behaviours.
Table 1
Process of
Identifying Storylines
|
Components of the
process |
Examples in italics |
|
Component 1: Identify repertoires of action to belong
to or be excluded from a position. Connected to pronouns (I, you, we, one), nouns,
verbs, and descriptions of others or places. |
Eirik: We [mentors] have to behave more maturely
than we do otherwise [during mentor-sessions]. Explanation: Eirik's (mentor) statement demonstrates
his understanding that mentors need to adapt their behaviour to meet the
expectations and duties of their role.
|
|
Component 2: Identify positions related to emotional
connections and the reasons for acting in specific ways. Visible in clear choices, taking a stand, accepting
consequences, commitments, etc. |
Linda: Because
if they [mentees] can't do it [mathematics] and I can, I think it's nice to
be able to help others. Explanation: Linda (mentor) likes to help mentees
because she believes it is a nice thing to do (commitment). |
|
Component 3: Identify
actions, emotions, values, social dynamics, etc., related to cultural
elements. Visible concerning
the mentioning of activities, desirable features, expectations, persons,
memories, and futures, etc. |
Fariah: Eh, that it is good that the mentors exist, and it is better
to be with the mentors and the mentees have a good
time and then they learn a bit more. Explanation: Fariah (mentee) states that when mentors are present,
mentees learn more while having a good time (connection to the
micro-sociological unit). |
|
Component 4: Identify
positioning related to rights and duties. Visible when pronouns
are combined with verbs and their consequences, autobiographical aspects,
future choices, struggles, conflicting statements, emotions, etc. |
Eirik: So that we
[mentors] don't teach them to use, maybe, swear words and stuff like that. Explanation: Eirik
(mentor) changes his behaviour when he is with the mentees because he does
not want them to learn bad behaviour (consequence of duty). |
Note. Adapted based
on the work of Perlander and Sjøberg (2022)
To be qualified as a storyline, all components were present, even if not every element is evident in the final phrasing of the
storyline. We identified several
storylines at play (Herbel-Eisenmann et al., 2016), but focused on the
storylines, we regarded as most significant to the research question. We
acknowledge that despite our backgrounds as mathematics teachers and the first
author's relationship with the students, our roles as researchers may constrain
our capacity to fully interpret the students' experiences and, hence,
potentially overlook significant storylines.
To facilitate discussion of the
students' collective experiences as patterns rather than individual statements,
we formulated the storylines into eight phrases across three dimensions, each
encapsulating our interpretation of the essence of the patterns identified in
the students' interviews. To gain additional perspectives on the analysis, we presented the
storylines and transcripts to the [project name] research group, where their
formulation and significance to the research question were thoroughly discussed.
This process resulted in a ninth storyline and reformulation of two storylines
to reflect the students' statements more accurately.
Table 2
Dimensions and
Storylines Identified in the Transcripts
|
Dimensions |
Number |
Storylines |
|
Dimension 1: The
mentor role in mathematics education |
1A 1B |
Mentors: “Mentors need to be good role models” Mentees: “Mentoring
is a respected and highly regarded role” |
|
Dimension 2: Emotions
linked to
learning mathematics with mentees/mentors |
2A 2B 2C 2D |
Mentees: “We admire you” Mentees: “When you are close to me, I feel better” Mentors: “I like being your little teacher” Mentors: “Helping
others makes me proud” |
|
Dimension 3: The
process of learning mathematics together |
3A 3B 3C |
Mentors: “Mathematical explanations are challenging” Mentors: “Challenges bring mathematical thinking
forward” Mentors: “Mastering a
task on your own signifies learning” |
Storyline 1A, mentors:
"Mentors have to be good role models," was present in all mentors’ interviews. This
storyline reveals the mentors' self-positioning through phrases such as
“our job is to teach them and make sure it goes well,” and “have to behave more
maturely,” which demonstrate that the mentors are aware of the rights and
duties associated with the mentor role. This awareness, confirmed through Kaja's
observations, influences the mentors' actions toward their mentees. By taking
the position as a role model, the mentors acknowledge their position as being
older and having more knowledge and experience than the mentees, which, in
turn, places upon them the responsibility to demonstrate good behaviour and
ensure the well-being of the mentees. For instance, the element of trust
articulated by Rizwan can prompt mentors to exhibit greater maturity than they
typically show in their regular classroom.
Table 3
Examples of Transcripts Supporting Storyline 1A
|
Rizwan: We're not adults
exactly, but we're still older than them and know more than them, and our job
is to teach them and make sure it goes well. Rizwan: And they
[mentees] trust you |
|
Jesper: Role models! Eirik: ... behave
properly and be role models, yes. Kaja: Mmm,
is it something you consciously think about, or does it just happen
naturally? Eirik: It happens
naturally. Jesper: Kind of on its
own. Kaja: Mmm.
Why do you think it happens? Eirik: So that we don't
teach them to use, maybe, swear words and stuff like that. Jesper: […] not teach
them [mentees] to be mischievous and things like that. We have to behave more
maturely than we do otherwise. |
Another reason related
to rights and duties is evident in Jesper and Eirik's transcripts. These boys
use the term ‘role model’ and explain that they do not want to teach the
mentees to swear or engage in other negative behaviours.
Storyline 1B, mentees:
"Mentoring is a respected and highly regarded role," was recognized with cheerful tones and eager
articulation in all mentee interviews. The storyline implies an eager
anticipation of becoming a mentor. Iselin’s and Henrik's words indicate that
they look forward to assuming the responsibility of caring for younger
students.
Table 4
Examples of Transcripts Supporting Storyline 1B
|
Iselin: Oh, it’s going to
be very, very, very, very fun! [to become a mentor] |
|
Henrik: […] then we kind
of get our own child to be with, in a way. |
Another example of this
storyline is evident in the dialogue with Linda, which reflects her view of the
mentor's role as a helper in aiding her mentees' understanding of mathematics.
Table 5
Example of a Transcript
Supporting Storyline 1B
|
Linda: […] we can help
them with difficult things. Kaja: Do you like helping
people? Linda: Mmm… Kaja: Why? Linda: Because if they
can't do it [mathematics] and I can, I think it's nice to be able to help
others. Kaja: Why is that? Linda: Because then they
understand much more of what they're supposed to do. Kaja: How do you feel
about that? Linda: I feel that it's
nice. And that I become happy. |
Field notes highlighted a relationship
and atmosphere characterized by friendly and productive collaboration between
the mentors and mentees. This dynamic contrasted with the mentors' behaviour in
their regular classroom environment, which was described as chaotic and stressful.
Within the mentorship context, the mentors demonstrated a notable shift in
behaviour, taking on roles as responsible and compassionate helpers; a
transformation influenced by the exchange of positions and the change in
context. Additionally, the field notes suggested that the way the mentors
embodied their positions had a significant impact, inspiring the mentees to
envision themselves in similar roles in the future.
Dimension 2 comprises four distinct storylines,
centring around the emotions and attitudes that mentors and mentees experience
in their relationships. These storylines relate to interpersonal dynamics and
emotions.
Storyline 2A, mentees:
"We admire you," originates from the
mentees' shared admiration for their mentors. Although this admiration is only
evident in the written words presented here, the distinct loving tone and joy
in the mentees' voices when discussing their mentors prompted us to use the
word 'admiration'. In almost every interview, the mentees highlighted various
strengths they perceived in their mentors. These strengths ranged from
kindness, exemplified by Nora's comment that "we can have fun and ride on
their backs," to helpfulness, with Iselin noting that "they always
want to help us." Fariah remarked on their physical stature, describing
the mentors as "taller and taller and bigger," and also recognized
their mathematical proficiency, stating, "they become better at math every
single day."
Table 6
Examples of Transcripts
Supporting Storyline 2A
|
Iselin: I think mentor
class is fun because then we get to be with the mentors and then we can have
fun and ride on their backs! Nora: And then you can
learn things that you don't quite know yet. Kaja: So, you think it's
nice to have a mentor class? Nora: Yes. Iselin: Yes, really fun! Nora: […] if someone
needs help with something. Not that kind of help, help with math, but help if
they get stuck or something like that. Iselin: And they are kind, they are almost like friends. Almost, just that they
are older than us. And then they always want to help us
and those boys are a bit naughty, but the girls are always quite kind. |
|
Fariah: […] they are
getting taller and taller and bigger, and then they almost become adults, and
that's when they become better at math every single day. |
The transcripts
illustrate that mentors effectively leverage their inherent strengths and
natural abilities during their mathematics sessions with the mentees.
Emphasizing the importance of relationships, the mentees' storyline reveals
that mentors' support is not confined to academic help, such as mathematics.
Instead, it extends to assisting mentees with various challenges, exemplified
by Nora's comment, "help if they [mentees] get stuck or something like
that."
Kaja noted
the mentors' multifaceted roles across contexts. Working on mathematics
together, mentors also aided mentees with finding materials and navigating new
apps. Additionally, the mentors assisted in articulating the mentees' struggles
to the teachers when the mentees found tasks challenging or when the mentors'
explanations were insufficient. This involvement illustrates the mentors'
active role in facilitating communication and their extensive involvement in
diverse aspects of the mentees' lives. Jakub's comment in the following
transcript offers an interesting perspective on the mentors' competence,
attributing it to their daily practice of mathematics. This reflects Jakub's
basic understanding of skill development, recognizing the effort and time necessary
to acquire mathematical knowledge.
Table 7
Example of a Transcript
Supporting Storyline 2A
|
Jakub: […] so every day,
they had math, that's why they are so good at math. |
The admiration
storyline, driven by mentees' anticipation of becoming mentors (storyline 1b),
reflects a learning context where mentees feel secure and happy. This aspect
can be crucial to the success of cross-age collaboration because the mentee's
admiration motivates mentors to position themselves as responsible leaders,
enhancing collaboration.
The admiration
storyline is supported by another mentee storyline, storyline 2B,
mentees: “When you are close to me, I feel better,” which encapsulates the
essence of the mentorship program. The heart of collaboration is articulated by
Fariah:
Table 8
Example of a Transcript
Supporting Storyline 2B
|
Fariah: Eh, that it is
good that the mentors exist, and it is better to be with the mentors and the mentees have a good time and then they
learn a bit more. Kaja: Mmm,
why do you learn more when you're having a good time? Fariah: Because when you
have a good time, you also learn math at the same time. Then you sort of
learn something while having a good time. |
Fariah's statement is
deeply connected to human bonds. Her words indicate that enjoyment and learning
are not mutually exclusive. Instead, when people enjoy themselves, they are
more receptive to learning, even complex subjects like mathematics. The
physical proximity provides immediate, accessible support, which contrasts with
waiting for a teacher's attention:
Table 9
Example of a Transcript Supporting Storyline 2B
|
Jakub: It's best to have
a mentor because when the teacher, when, it's best not to shout Sigrid,
Sigrid, Sigrid, come, come, Sigrid come, it's difficult, come! It is best to
have a mentor, then you must not shout for the teacher, but you have a mentor
by your side to help. |
Having an older, more
knowledgeable student for immediate assistance supports the learning process.
Extended waiting periods can lead to diminished patience, inducing a shift in
focus towards alternative activities, such as drawing or engaging our peers in
distraction. During Kaja's observation of this collaborative process, it was
common to see numerous mentors and mentees working together on the same task.
Most of these tasks were resolved without requiring teacher involvement. Even
when mentors lacked the exact solution to a problem, they provided
problem-solving strategies.
Another key finding is
the mentors' joy in assuming a helper's position. Storyline 2C, mentors:
“I like being your little teacher,” shows that the mentors appreciate the
position that comes with mentoring and tutoring. The term "little
teacher" is used affectionately and embraced positively by the mentors,
suggesting they view the role as significant:
Table 10
Example of a Transcript
Supporting Storyline 2C
|
Thea: So, in a way, you
become like a little teacher. You go around helping students just like a
teacher. Madelen: I liked that
word. I like that word a lot. Thea and Madelen: Little
teacher [giggling laughter]. Or young teacher? Madelen: I like little
teacher. A little teacher. Kaja: Do you think it's
okay to be a little teacher then? Madelen: Yes,
very nice. It's like, "Hey, you, little teacher." It's [koselig] |
Table 2: Koselig
is a Norwegian word that is challenging to translate directly into English due
to its broad and culturally specific meaning. It describes a pleasant,
comfortable, or enjoyable atmosphere, experience, or feeling.
Having the knowledge
and experience to help mentees learn mathematics and assist them with personal
difficulties (Nora, storyline 2a) appears to boost the mentors' self-esteem.
The use of phrases like 'I feel,' a notable indicator of personal positioning (Fairclough, 2001), along with terms such as
“strong,” “cool,” and “old,” demonstrates a sense of accomplishment and
self-confidence.
Table 11
Example of a Transcript
Supporting Storyline 2C
|
Madelen: You feel like
you're so smart and strong! Thea: You feel like
you're the big, strong, smart, cool one. Madelen: Not cool? Thea: No? I feel...tough! […] Madelen: Yes, I feel I
like it because I feel smart. And I'm actually smart in my class too, just
saying. Thea: Yes, you are. Madelen: I feel [giggles,
laughs] better than the others, I feel a bit egoistic but [giggles]. […] Thea: I feel kind of
tough. I feel like the old and cool one, like a little, little teacher or
whatever it was. It's quite fun to be the one that they, in a way, look up
to. |
Particularly
interesting is Madelen's assertion of feeling “smart” and her affirmation of
being "actually smart in my class, too." This reveals her confidence
in her academic abilities beyond mentoring. Additionally, her statements about
feeling "better than the others" and experiencing a sense of
"egoism" reinforce the growth of self-esteem.
Storyline 2D, mentors: “Helping mentees makes me proud” is
intricately interconnected with the previous storyline. Kaja observed that
mentors often exchanged high-fives with mentees upon task completion. This
celebratory gesture suggests that mentors take pride in their mentees'
achievements, recognizing their role in successes.
The following
transcripts show Jesper describing the "satisfying feeling"
associated with successfully teaching the mentees. Guro, Bertine, and Sofie
describe the act of helping and being needed as a source of happiness that
enhances their day. Rizwan uses the word "proud" to describe his
experience.
Table 12
Examples of Transcripts
Supporting Storyline 2D
|
Jesper: A satisfying
feeling. We've taught them how to do it. Eirik: Nice. […] Jesper: I get a bit
excited because then I'm happy that they managed to solve what they struggled
with before. |
|
Guro: It makes me have a
better day afterward. Bertine: You feel like...
Sofie: ...you've done a
good job! Bertine: ...and that
you're needed for something. That you're helpful and things like that. Guro: It's that good
feeling in your body that you've been helpful. |
|
Rizwan: I just teach them
what I've learned. Kaja: But how does it
feel for you, when you manage to teach another child? Rizwan: I feel proud. |
The four interconnected
storylines within dimension 2 clarify the reciprocal nature of how constructive
storylines can operate within specific contexts or cultures. The mentees'
admiration and affirmative emotions towards their mentors are mirrored in the
two mentor storylines, demonstrating a reflective process where positivity is
reciprocated. The relationships are not merely a one-way transfer of knowledge
or guidance; they are also enriching for the mentors.
The third dimension
explores the mentors' role as tutors and the benefits they acquire in the
helper position. Storyline 3A, mentors: “Mathematical explanations are
challenging” highlights mentors' experiences when adapting or relearning
methods and algorithms and their efforts to elucidate their functionality to
younger students. In the following transcript, Bertine, Thea, and Sofie talk
about how tutoring mentees challenge them.
Table 13
Example of Transcript Supporting
Storyline 3A
|
Bertine: We have to learn
other methods to calculate or explain in a different way. Kaja: Why is that? Bertine: Because they
don't understand adult language like we do. […] Sofie: Explain it in a
different way. It's harder for us but easier for them. Kaja: What's more
challenging for you and easier for them? Bertine: It's harder for
us to explain it. Sofie: Because they have
other methods. Bertine: But it's easier
for them to understand it. Thea: So it's a bit
difficult because they have a completely different method that we probably
did in 3rd grade, but we have now become accustomed to a completely different
method, and it's a bit difficult to help them when they don't understand the
way we're trying to help them. |
This storyline is
followed by storyline 3B, mentors: "Challenges bring mathematical
thinking forward," which informs us about how providing explanations
enhances the mentors' learning and indicates that mentors' efforts to elucidate
mathematical concepts with the mentees enhance their own mathematical
comprehension. The following transcripts indicate that as mentors work on
explanations, they simultaneously process and expand their own mathematical
understanding.
Table 14
Examples of Transcripts Supporting Storyline 3B
|
Bertine: […] I learn how
to do it in other ways, and I learn more about how to simplify questions. |
|
Madelen: Sometimes I just
have to stop and then I have to write it down in my method, and they ask,
"What is that, what is that?" And I say, "I just have to
calculate it this way, I can help you after that, I just need to get the
answer for myself first”. |
While demanding, these
cognitive processes hold potential to enhance mentors' comprehension of
mathematics. For example, Madelen's strategy of writing down her preferred
method before assisting the mentees demonstrates her understanding of the
importance of thoroughly grasping a problem before providing practical help.
Storyline 3C, mentors:
"Mastering a task on your own signifies learning” was explicitly articulated in all the mentor
interviews and concurrently reflected in the dialogues with the mentees. For
instance, Jesper underscores the importance of explaining the problem-solving
process to the mentees rather than simply providing them with solutions. Eirik
expands on this discussion, suggesting that without mastering the method,
mentees might struggle with similar problems when their mentors are not around.
Table 15
Example of Transcript Supporting
Storyline 3C
|
Jesper: […] we have to
show them how to arrive at the answer! Kaja: Why is it not okay
to just say that the answer is 12? Jesper: Because they
won't learn anything. Eirik: They won't learn
anything. Kaja: No. So, that would
be poor mentoring? Eirik: Yes. They wouldn't
learn the method. In case we're not there. Kaja: Yes, because what
you teach them, they should be able to do... Eirik: …themselves. |
Eirik and Jesper's comments underline the
mentors' understanding of the importance of process over product. At the same
time, the boys also demonstrate that they want to help the mentees develop
independent thinking and problem-solving skills.
Guided by the research
question, "How can a strength-based cross-age peer mentorship program
in primary school support mentors in assuming positions beneficial for learning
mathematics?", this article presents a long-term strength-based
cross-age mentorship program implemented weekly in mathematics classes at a
multicultural suburban school in Norway. The initiative is driven by the
aspirations of two teachers to create positive change for their students. The
teachers' primary focus was on the mentor class, a group dealing with
significant cultural, linguistic, and behavioural tensions within their
classroom environment. Despite the school's extensive efforts to initiate
change, the teachers broadened their perspective beyond the classroom walls
when these measures proved insufficient.
As our study reveals, the cornerstone of the
strength-based pedagogy approach inherent in this program lies in the
relationships between the two teachers and their students. Their intimate
knowledge of students' strengths equipped them to capitalize on the mentors'
strengths (Silverman et al., 2023) to form cross-age groups that accentuate
both personal and mathematical strengths. While this article
predominantly focuses on the mentor's positionings and storylines, it is
important to note that the cross-age collaboration also had profound
implications for the mentees.
We identified three
distinct dimensions of storylines from interviews and observations. In the
following sections, we will discuss these dimensions separately and conclude by
synthesizing them to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the cross-age
mentorship program.
Primarily, we argue
that the mentor role in mathematics education holds significant importance for
both mentors and mentees. In the context of positioning, storyline 1a,
"Mentors need to be good role models," clearly ties the mentor role
to specific rights and duties (Harré &
Moghaddam, 2003). Their behaviour reflects a commitment to positively
impact their mentees, exemplify (a new) commendable behaviour, and situate the
mentors in a position (Riessman, 1965).
Adopting the position,
the mentors leverage many strengths that transcend mathematical strengths.
Mentors utilized their character and signature strengths (Silverman et al.,
2023) to foster strong relationships with their mentees. The fact that mentors,
who struggle with relationships in their home classroom, engage in relationship
building where they find their signature strengths to be indispensable,
bolsters their self-confidence and self-belief. Furthermore, through this form
of collaboration, mentors gained practical experience in leadership within a
real-life context. These experiences can prove beneficial across various life
domains, nurturing transferrable life skills.
The storyline
"Mentoring is a respected and highly regarded role" illustrates the
mentors' success in embodying the role of role models and holds significant
implications for future generations of mentors, establishing a standard for
mentorship in mathematics throughout the entire school context. Furthermore,
the storyline elevates the mentorship role to a desirable position, emphasizing
its crucial influence within the school community.
The second dimension of
the interviews has its genesis in the interpersonal bonds between mentors and
mentees. The four intertwined storylines reinforce the positive emotional
exchanges among older and younger students. Guided and supported by the mindful
instruction and scaffolding teachers offer, the learning environment fosters
warm, supportive relationships and atmospheres, as documented by Barahona et
al. (2023). The cross-age collaboration establishes a learning context that
cultivates democratic values. It provides a secure environment where students
engage with cultures, languages, and religions. Given the long-term
collaboration, students become intimately familiar with, gain understanding of,
and acquire more knowledge about others. We believe the age difference could
potentially ease the process of exploring and understanding others. We imagine
that this form of collaboration could foster students' appreciation of human
diversity, a central component of the Norwegian curriculum (Ministry of Education and Research, 2017).
The central element in
this dimension is the storyline of admiration, "We admire you." This
storyline is pivotal in the relationship dynamics between mentors and mentees
and is not limited to the mentor's mathematical competence. Mentees admire
their mentors for their signature strengths, physical capabilities of being
older, and because they sit close and spend time together, which in turn offers
mentors a position of respect. In this context, such positioning could hold
particular significance for the mentors due to challenges within their
mathematics classroom environment. Being participants in a learning environment
where mentors consider themselves as “smart and strong” (Madelen) and “cool”
(Thea), and where active participation and practical application of skills
underscore the usefulness and importance of their mathematical competence,
could reinforce the mentors' self-conception as learners of mathematics. This
improved self-conception can boost their confidence in their abilities,
triggering increased motivation and interest in the subject, ultimately
fostering a deeper commitment to learning mathematics. Over time, this can
nurture a more positive attitude towards mathematics.
Through the storyline
“When you are close to me, I feel better,” the mentees outline the mentors as
sources of comfort and positivity, implying that the presence of the mentors
directly influences the mentee's emotional balance. The storyline invites the
mentors to take a position where they are providers of comfort, trust,
and empathy. The storyline "I like being your little teacher"
suggests that mentors find joy in sharing knowledge and guiding their mentees,
which aligns with the notion that "Mentors need to be good role
models." The mentors' tone when discussing their role as 'little teachers'
indicated their satisfaction in being the more experienced students who could
exert a level of influence or control. As Topping et al. (2003) highlighted, mentoring
can enhance the self-esteem of mentors. We confirm this as “Helping mentees
makes me proud," which shows that mentors consider their position valuable
and believe their efforts and support positively impact the mentees.
The third dimension
highlights the process of learning mathematics. As acknowledged in the review,
there is limited research on tutors' mathematical gains in cross-age
collaborations. However, the storylines in the third dimension reveal that such
collaborations in mathematics create opportunities where mentors are challenged
to engage in reflective thought processes to explain and demonstrate
mathematical concepts to the mentees. This supports Topping et al. (2003)’s
findings, which showed an increase in the use of mathematical terminology and
strategic dialogue, thereby contradicting Haynes and Brendle (2019), who
reported that most first-grade tutors' teachers did not identify any detectable
mathematical gain from tutoring kindergarten students. The storyline
"Mathematical explanations are challenging" positions mentors in a
tutoring role. The mentors must actively navigate various methods or approaches
to explain mathematical concepts at a level the younger mentees understand. The
challenge takes the mentors further along in the process of their mathematical
understanding, which is evident in the storyline "Challenges bring
mathematical thinking forward."
Here, we see a shift in
how the mentors position the mathematical tasks: the first storyline positions
mathematical explanations as obstacles. In contrast, the second storyline
frames these challenges as mechanisms for advancing mathematical thinking. The
mentors acknowledge that explaining mathematics to the mentees encourages them
to delve deeper into mathematical thinking, which could be a step toward
positioning themselves as strong mathematical learners. This supports Sharpley
et al. (1983), who posits that tutors' mathematics achievements were
significantly higher than those of the control group students.
The mentors' readiness
to overcome the mathematical challenges is likely linked to the storyline
"Mastering a task on your own signifies learning." Additionally, when
the mentees have acquired the necessary skills and understanding to work on
mathematics independently, the mentors feel a sense of pride, as shown in
"Helping mentees makes me proud". Also illustrated, mentors
are depicted as enablers in this process, possessing the capacity to empower
their mentees. These three storylines may explain the observed increase in the
use of mathematical terminology and strategic dialogue noted by Topping et al. (2003).
The identified
storylines in this study highlight several wide-ranging benefits of a
strength-based, cross-age mentorship program, where mentors were encouraged to
position themselves as caregivers, role models, leaders, helpers, and,
importantly, as “little mathematics teachers” as opposed to less constructive
or even harmful positionings. Initially, we questioned whether such a program
could support not only mentors but also mentees in positioning themselves as
mathematics learners. The presented storylines indicate that this is feasible.
In addition to
supporting mentors in interacting with mentees (and peers) with varying levels
of mathematics experience, familiarizing themselves with individuals from
diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds, and hence gaining valuable
collaborative experiences that extend beyond school life, the program also
supports mentors to develop crucial mathematical skills like explaining
concepts clearly, problem-solving, and articulating mathematical reasoning,
positions, and competence. These are indispensable in a democracy, where we are
to "live, learn, and work together in a complex present and the face of an
unknown future" (Ministry of Education and
Research, 2017, p. 3).
The cross-age
mentorship program, as outlined in this article, can inspire pedagogical
developments and, in turn, pivot deficit storylines (Andersson et al., 2022;
Gerbrandt & Wagner, 2023), providing students with positive experiences,
relationships, and positionings that promote mathematics learning. This
research may, in particular, inspire teachers who face
tensions within their mathematics classrooms. Even if peers do not treat each
other well, they may take other positions when given the chance, especially in
the presence of younger students. As one mentor said: We have to behave more
maturely than we do otherwise”.
Additionally, this work can be inspiring for
mathematics education research, as the widespread practice of mentoring in
primary schools means that teachers and school leaders, in Norway and
elsewhere, already have experience with cross-age mentoring, allowing for
relatively simple expansions of existing mentoring programs.
In future studies, we
see rich opportunities to further explore cross-age mentoring in mathematics,
especially given the limited research that has been done. We believe there is
significant potential in developing strength-based cross-age mentor programs,
specifically in mathematics education.
Andersson, A., Ryan, U., Herbel-Eisenmann, B., Huru,
H. L., & Wagner, D. (2022). Storylines in public news media about
mathematics education and minoritized students. Educational Studies in
Mathematics, 111(2), 323-343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-022-10161-5
Andersson,
A., Valero, P., & Meaney, T. (2015). “I am [not always] a maths hater”:
Shifting students’ identity narratives in context. Educational Studies
in Mathematics, 90, 143-161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-015-9617-z
Barahona,
E., Padrón, Y. N., & Waxman, H. C. (2023). Classroom observations of a
cross-age peer tutoring mathematics program in elementary and middle schools. European Journal of Science and Mathematics
Education, 11, 515-532. https://doi.org/10.30935/scimath/12983
Davies,
B., & Harré, R. (1990). Positioning: The discursive production of selves. Journal for The Theory of Social Behaviour, 20, 43-63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5914.1990.tb00174.x
Delgado-Gaitan, C., & Trueba, H. (2023). Crossing
cultural borders: Education for immigrant families in America (Vol. 6).
Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003331322
Directorate
for education and training. (2022). Minoritetsspråklige barn. Retrieved 5. May
from https://www.udir.no/tall-og-forskning/statistikk/statistikk-barnehage/analyser/fakta-om-barnehager-2022/minoritetsspraklige-barn/#okning-i-antall-minoritetsspraklige-barn-de-siste-10-arene
Fairclough,
N. (2001). Critical discourse analysis as a method in social scientific research.
In R. Wodak & M. Meyer (Eds.), Methods
of critical discourse analysis (1st ed., pp. 121-138). SAGE
Publications, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857028020.n6
Gay,
G. (2018). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice (3rd ed.).
Teachers College Press.
Gerbrandt,
J., & Wagner, D. (2023). Conflict, hope, and
mathematics education storylines: Pivoting away from a pathology-based
orientation. Journal
of Mathematics and Culture, 17(3), 126-144.
Gonzalez,
N., Moll, L. C., & Amanti, C. (2005). Funds of knowledge: Theorizing
practices in households, communities and classrooms (1st ed.). Taylor
& Francis Group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410613462
Harré,
R. (2012). Positioning theory: Moral dimensions of social-cultural psychology.
In The Oxford handbook of culture and
psychology. (pp. 191-206). Oxford University Press.
Harré,
R., & Moghaddam, F. (2003). Introduction: The self and others in traditional
psychology and in positioning theory. In R. Harré & F. Moghaddam (Eds.), The self and others: Positioning individuals
and groups in personal, political, and cultural contexts. (pp. 1-11).
Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing Group.
Harré,
R., & van Langenhove, L. (Eds.). (1999). Positioning theory: Moral contexts of intentional action.
Blackwell.
Harré, R., & van Langenhove, L. (2010). Varieties
of positioning. In L. van Langenhove (Ed.), People
and societies: Rom Harré and designing the social sciences (pp. 106-120).
Taylor & Francis Group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203860885
Haynes,
K. B., & Brendle, J. (2019). Cross-age math tutoring of kindergarten and
first grade students by middle school tutors. International Journal of Education in Mathematics, Science and
Technology, 7, 238-250. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijemst.3364
Herbel-Eisenmann,
B., Sinclair, N., Chval, B. K., Clements, H. D., Civil, M., Pape, J. S.,
Stephan, M., Wanko, J. J., & Wilkerson, L. T. (2016). Positioning mathematics
education researchers to influence storylines. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 47(2), 102-117. https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.47.2.0102
Herbel-Eisenmann, B., & Wagner, D. (2010). Appraising
lexical bundles in mathematics classroom discourse: Obligation and choice. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 75(1), 43-63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-010-9240-y
Herbel-Eisenmann,
B. A., Wagner, D., Johnson, R. K., Suh, H., & Figueras, H. (2015).
Positioning in mathematics education: Revelations on an imported theory. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 89(2), 185-204. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43590248
Karcher,
M. (2009). Increases in academic connectedness and self-esteem among high school
students who serve as cross-age peer mentors. Professional School Counseling,
12, 292-299. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156759X0901200403
Karcher,
M. (2014). Cross-age peer mentoring. In D. L. DuBois & M. J. Karcher
(Eds.), Handbook of youth mentoring
(Vol. 2, pp. 233-257). Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412996907.n16
Ladson-Billings,
G. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 465-491. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312032003465
Ministry
of Education and Research. (2017). Overordnet del-verdier og prinsipper for
grunnopplæringen. Retrieved from https://www.udir.no/lk20/overordnet-del/prinsipper-for-laring-utvikling-og-danning/tverrfaglige-temaer/demokrati-og-medborgerskap/?lang=nob
Ministry
of Education and Research. (2020). Curriculum
for mathematics year 1-10 (MAT01‑05). Retrieved from https://www.udir.no/lk20/mat01-05?lang=eng
Peterson,
C., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Character
strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification (Vol. 1). Oxford
University Press.
Perlander,
A., & Sjøberg, M. H. (2023). Exploring sense-making processes to discover
storylines about becoming a mathematics and science teacher in Norway. Journal
of Mathematics and Culture, 17(4), 285-307.
Riessman,
F. (1965). The “helper” therapy principle. Social
Work, 10(2), 27-32.
Robinson,
D. R., Schofield, J. W., & Steers-Wentzell, K. L. (2005). Peer and cross-age
tutoring in math: Outcomes and their design implications. Educational Psychology Review,
17(4), 327-362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-005-8137-2
Sharpley,
A. M., Irvine, J., & Sharpley, C. F. (1983). An examination of the effectiveness
of a cross-age tutoring program in mathematics for elementary school children. American
Educational Research Journal, 20(1), 103-111. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312020001103
Silverman,
D. M., Rosario, R. J., Hernandez, I. A., & Destin, M. (2023). The ongoing
development of strength-based approaches to people who hold systemically
marginalized identities. Personality and
Social Psychology Review, 255-271. https://doi.org/10.1177/10888683221145243
Slavin,
R. E., & Cooper, R. (1999). Improving intergroup relations: Lessons learned
from cooperative learning programs. Journal
of Social Issues, 55(4), 647-663.
https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00140
Topping,
K. J., Campbell, J., Douglas, W. B. T., & Smith, A. (2003). Cross-age peer
tutoring in mathematics with seven- and 11-year-olds: Influence on mathematical
vocabulary, strategic dialogue and self-concept. Educational Research, 45, 287-308.
Unicef. (n.d). En
for alle-alle for en: Et inkluderende fadderprogram for barneskolen. https://www.unicef.no/skole/undervisning/fadderprogram-for-grunnskolen
Wagner, D., & Herbel-Eisenmann, B. (2009). Re-mythologizing
mathematics through attention to classroom positioning. Educational Studies
in Mathematics, 72, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-008-9178-5
APPENDIX
Appendix 1, Interview Guide for Mentees Interviews
1. How do you feel about having a mentor class?
2. Tell me about what it's like when they come to work on
tasks with you.
3. What do the mentors help you with? (Examples)
4. How do you learn from them? (Examples)
5. Would you say that you collaborate with the mentors?
(What do you think about collaborating to learn something?)
6. Could you provide an example of how the mentors do it
when they teach you?
7. Do you show the mentors things sometimes?
8. What do you like best about being with the mentors?
9. Do you feel like you are friends? (What is it like to
have a friend older than you?)
10. Does it make a difference during recess? (Do they help
you then? Do you talk to the mentors at other times besides during class?)
11. What do you think about becoming a mentor?
1. Tell me about the mentorship program in Praxis.
(Examples of what you
do when you are with the mentees during mathematics class?)
2. How do you feel about being a mentor?
3. How do you find working on math with the mentees?
4. Do you feel like you can teach them something?
(Tell me more about
that. How does it make you feel?)
5. How do you like working with the younger students?
(Are there any specific
activities or ways of working that are better than others?)
6. Do you think you learn anything from working with
them?
(examples, why?)
7. Do you sometimes prepare things to teach the younger
students?
(How do you prepare?)
8. What is the relationship between you?
(What is it like to be
with someone younger than yourself?)
9. Do you think it's important for the younger students
to have mentors?
10. Does it make a difference during recess?
(Do you talk to
mentees, play, help, support, etc.?)