Experiences of
International Students in Postsecondary Education: A Literature Review
Jane P. Preston, Charlottetown, PE
Author’s Note
Correspondence concerning this article should
be addressed to Dr. Jane P. Preston at janeslifewellness@gmail.com .
Abstract
The
purpose of this literature review is to describe the educational experiences of
international students enrolled in English-medium postsecondary institutions. Because
the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia currently host the
largest international student populations globally, enrollment statistics for
each country are presented. A systematic review of 70 peer-reviewed
publications was conducted to identify key findings related to the experiences
of international students in English-medium postsecondary education. Data were
collected and analyzed to ensure the reliability and validity of the results. Findings
indicate that academic English proficiency significantly influences the
experiences of international students. Moreover, a key challenge for these
students often lies in navigating and adapting to the unfamiliar pedagogical
approaches employed within host institutions. Finally, the well-being and
academic success of international students are significantly influenced by
sociocultural factors, surrounding acceptance, integration, and experiences of
discrimination. The paper concludes with a summary of the results and a discussion
of possible avenues for future research.
Keywords:
international students, postsecondary education, higher education, experiences,
barriers
The purpose of
this literature review is to describe the educational experiences of
international students enrolled in English-medium postsecondary institutions. To
address the research purpose, in what follows, I established clear research
delimitations and provided concise definitions of key terms. Thereafter, I
provide background information on international students in the United States,
Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia. Subsequently, I detail the data
collection and analysis procedures. The findings are then presented and organized
into three key themes: academic English proficiency, pedagogical approaches,
and sociocultural issues. I conclude by providing possible suggestions for
future research.
Delimitations and Significance of the Research
Delimitations
define the scope of the study by explicitly specifying what is included and
excluded from the investigation. Transparency regarding these factors is
crucial for conducting rigorous research and enhancing the transferability and
generalizability of the findings. The first delimitation is that the findings
are limited to research published within the last ten years (i.e., 2016–2025).
This focus on recent literature is a strength of the paper, because the
findings reflect current knowledge. This restricted timeframe also enabled me
to present the findings concisely within the word limit required for a
publishable academic journal article. Second, I limited my research to data gathered
from Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States, because
these four countries are the most popular destinations for international
students in postsecondary programs. As a final point, the terms “international
student” and “postsecondary education” need to be addressed. Herein,
international students are defined as “students who study at higher education
institutions outside their countries” (IGI Global, 2022, para. 1), and postsecondary
education is any level of institutional study after completing high school
(e.g., trade schools, colleges, and universities). In this paper, the terms
postsecondary education and higher education are used interchangeably.
For myriad reasons, the topic of international
students in postsecondary education is significant. Excluding the COVID-19
period, international student enrollment has grown significantly over the past
decade, and international students constitute a substantial portion of the
total enrollment in many English-medium postsecondary programs. With the
international student population well-established in these institutions, it is
essential to understand their academic, social, psychological, and cultural
experiences. This knowledge enables educators to adopt effective pedagogical
practices that enhance learning, support mental health, and promote overall
student well-being. This research is also significant, because it supports
collaboration and innovation among locally and internationally diverse populations.
Such robust international collaborations cultivate a dynamic environment that both
fosters academic excellence and drives cutting-edge research within and across
institutions. Furthermore, international students, like all students, have an
inherent right to access high-quality educational services and support.
However, many English-speaking institutions, unfortunately, fall short of
adequately supporting the unique needs of their international student populations.
This shortfall includes limited academic resources, insufficient assistance
with housing, and a lack of adequate scholarship opportunities (Monaghan,
2018). Such issues have been highlighted by researchers such as Turnage (2017),
who noted that international students are often an “overlooked population”
(para. 1). With increasing numbers of international students attending
English-medium institutions, postsecondary organizations have a fiduciary
responsibility to create culturally and social just, research-grounded policies
and practices promoting international student success (Jabeen et al., 2019; Ma,
2022). This timely and crucial information is designed to assist researchers,
policymakers, educators, and community leaders in developing comprehensive and
inclusive strategies that effectively address the specific needs of
international students.
Background and Demographics
Many
educational institutions actively recruit international students due to
academic, social, and financial advantages. International students foster
stronger academic, economic, and social ties between their home countries and
the host country. These ties are strengthened through increased business,
trade, investment, research collaborations, and greater cultural understanding.
However, international students often face significantly higher tuition costs,
typically paying two to three times the amount charged to domestic students. This
situation raises ethical concerns, with some critics arguing that international
students are often treated as "cash cows" by institutions primarily
focused on generating revenue (Weber et al., 2024, p. 538). The high tuition
fees paid by international students often subsidize the shortfall in government
funding for education. As Hurley (2024) starkly observed, “no university could
function... without the revenue from international student fees” (para 20),
highlighting the growing financial dependence of many institutions on this
revenue stream. Furthermore, international students make significant
contributions to the local economy by injecting substantial funds through
tuition fees, living expenses, and spending on goods and services. This
economic impact extends beyond universities, benefiting local businesses and
communities. For example, in the United Kingdom during the 2018–2019 school
year, the economic benefit of international postsecondary students was £28.8
billion, while the costs were £2.9 billion (Universities UK, 2022). Despite
primarily pursuing academic credentials, international students also fill
important roles in the host country's labor market (Crossman et al., 2021).
International students are a cornerstone of many universities, enriching
academic life, fostering innovation, and contributing significantly to the
economic and cultural development of the host nation.
What percentage of
postsecondary students in top-hosting countries are international students? In
the 2022–2023 academic year, international students comprised approximately 6%
of the total student population in U.S. postsecondary institutions
(Stewart-Rozema & Pratts, 2023), or about 1.1 million international
students (Open Doors, 2025). In Canada within the past decade, colleges and
universities have experienced a significant surge in international student enrollment
with the number of international students doubling. For the 2022–2023 school
year, the international student populace accounted for 21% of Canadian postsecondary
enrolments (Statistics Canada, 2024). International
students currently account for more than 30% of undergraduate enrollment at the
University of Toronto (2023), and the university aims to increase this number. Current
United Kingdom (UK) statistics show that international students comprise 26% of
the total student population (Bolton et al., 2024). The London School of
Economics and Political Science in the UK boasts the highest international
student enrollment, with a remarkable 71% of its student body comprised of international
students (UniScholars, 2024). According to a recent
OECD (2024) report, international students account for 23% of all enrollments in
Australian postsecondary institutions. A review of this information highlights
that in Canada, the UK, and Australia, international students represent about
one-fourth of the student population. International student numbers in the
United States are also on the rise.
Description of Data Collection and Analysis
Fink
(2020) defined a literature review as a “systematic, explicit, and reproducible
method of identifying, evaluating, and synthesizing the existing body of
completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars, and
practitioners” (p. 6). This literature review commenced with a data collection
phase. Utilizing the University of Prince Edward Island's library database
system, Google Scholar, Sage Premier, and ResearchGate, an extensive online
search was conducted. The resulting data encompassed a wide range of scholarly
sources, including peer-reviewed books, book chapters, journal articles,
dissertations, and conference papers. Thereafter, a targeted search of specific
journals publishing studies about international students and postsecondary
education was conducted. Main search terms (and their combination) included:
“international student,” “pedagogy,” “experience,” “culture,” “social,” “positive,”
“challenges,” “acculturation,” “student adjustment,” “undergraduate,”
“graduate,” “university,” “postsecondary education,” and “higher education.” The
dominant exclusion criteria were non-peer-reviewed literature and peer-reviewed
studies older than 10 years.
During the initial screening phase, titles, abstracts,
and/or introductory sections of over 120 online documents were carefully
examined to assess their relevance to the research topic. Subsequently,
promising documents were electronically saved for further in-depth review. The
search also extended to the local university library, where relevant books were
identified and accessed. Following an initial review, a more rigorous
examination of the saved documents was conducted. This in-depth analysis
revealed that only 70 documents directly addressed the research purpose. A thematic
data analysis was conducted on these documents. Utilizing a qualitative
approach (Patton, 2015), the author systematically coded the data, identifying
and categorizing recurring patterns, themes, and regularities. These identified
themes were then sorted and analyzed. More specifically, each article was
analyzed by carefully reading and noting keywords, findings, and significant
phrases. After several documents were processed in such a manner, similar codes
started to repeat, which created themes and sub-themes.
Findings
Analysis
of the data on the educational experiences of international students in
English-medium postsecondary institutions revealed three key themes related to the
academic English language, the pedagogical approaches of host institutions, and
the challenges and opportunities related to sociocultural
acceptance and integration. Below, each of these themes is further
elaborated upon using sub-themes.
Academic English
The
academic English proficiency of international students significantly influences
their overall educational experiences. These academic English experiences
encompass a range of factors, including proficiency in understanding both
written and spoken English, navigating local and foreign accents, interpreting
regional jargon, adapting to the rapid pace of spoken English, and building
confidence to communicate effectively in front of others.
Proficiency
Research consistently highlights English language
proficiency as the most significant academic challenge encountered by
international students in the classroom setting (e.g., Alqudayri
& Gounko, 2018; Bai & Wang, 2022a; Gautam et
al., 2016; Heng, 2017, 2018; Igwe et al., 2020; Jackson & Chen, 2018; Le et
al., 2017; Ma, 2020; Munna, 2020; Ogunsanya et al., 2018; Park et al., 2017;
Tang et al., 2018). Even with a general understanding of written English,
international students often encounter significant challenges when engaging
with academic literature (Liu, 2016; Schneider, 2018). International students
have difficulty understanding local English accents, foreign English accents,
and local jargon (Bai & Wang, 2022a, Le et al.,
2017; Lindner & Margetts, 2022; Ploner, 2018; Rao, 2017). In a study by Bai and Wang (2022a)
with 22 Chinese students in Australian higher education, 19 reported
significant difficulty understanding their instructors’ accents. Nine of these
participants conveyed that they had little to no understanding of what their
instructor was saying during the first one to two months. In Wang’s (2016)
Canadian research focusing on five international Chinese students who quit
their program before graduating, students revealed that their greatest obstacle
was English speaking and writing. For many international students, local
jargon, fast-paced speech, academic reading, academic writing, and local
English accents are learning obstacles impeding postsecondary success. Hepworth
et al. (2018) found that English proficiency levels, as measured by
standardized tests, emerged as the most critical factor influencing academic
success among international students.
Reticence
To Speak
Research verifies that international students are often
reticent to speak during class discussions (Kerridge & Simpson, 2021). Jackson and
Chen (2018) conducted a comprehensive, multi-national study (123 survey
respondents and 19 personal interviews) with Chinese exchange students in the
United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia. Fast-paced classroom
discussions were identified by participants as the most challenging aspect of
their overseas learning experience. A significant number of international
students experience anxiety, shyness, and embarrassment when participating in
open-class discussions, hindering their active engagement in the learning
process (Jackson & Chen, 2018; Lindner & Margetts, 2022; Matsunaga et
al., 2021; Yu, 2018). Many international students lack confidence in speaking
English, especially in front of their teachers and classmates (Bai & Wang,
2022b; Wang & Freed, 2021; Xiao, 2024). Some
international students are concerned that, after answering or commenting on a
question, they will not understand the teacher’s response (Bai & Wang,
2022b; Freeman & Li, 2019). The cognitive process of formulating thoughts
in a second language and then translating them into English can be
time-consuming, a point often exacerbated by the limited response time
typically afforded by instructors during classroom discussions (Heng, 2018). In
Xiao’s (2024) qualitative study with six Chinese participants, students expressed
a strong desire to participate in classroom discussions, but they felt they
could not express themselves fluently and accurately. Both directly and
indirectly, instructors and institutions sometimes foster a culture of silence
for international students, thereby limiting their access to insightful,
inclusive classroom discussions and enriching academic experiences.
Writing
Challenges
Many
studies noted that international students often struggle to adapt to the
conventions and styles of Western academic writing, including citation and
referencing styles. While Chinese written discourse may emphasize subtlety and
indirectness, Western academic writing typically values clear, concise, and
direct expression (Bai & Wang, 2022a). In Heng’s (2017) research of 18
international students (predominantly Chinese) studying in the United States, a
significant challenge emerged. Participants were unfamiliar with the expected
argumentative essay structure. This structure, common in Western academia,
typically requires a clear introduction, a well-developed body of arguments,
and a strong concluding statement. Similarly, in Ravichandran et al.’s (2017)
study of 15 international graduate students from 11 different countries, the
researchers identified a range of challenges associated with navigating the
conventions of Western academic writing. These issues included English grammar,
English vocabulary, academic formatting, the organization of information, the
flow or transition of information, the critical thinking process, the
formulation of an argument, the provision of evidence, and the formation of new
and concluding ideas. Likewise, in Rao’s (2017) study, both Russian and Chinese
international students reported significant challenges in adapting their
writing to the conventions of Western academic discourse. Specifically, the
students struggled to incorporate key elements such as a clear thesis
statement, well-defined topic sentences, and a concise concluding statement. In
Chauhan's (2021) dissertation research, 10 international students at an
American university reported experiencing significant challenges across various
aspects of academic writing, including content development, organizational
structure, vocabulary usage, genre awareness, grammatical accuracy, and proper
citation and referencing practices. Mastery of these specialized Westernized
writing skills often necessitates dedicated instruction, which is frequently
absent from core academic curricula.
Pedagogical Approaches
The
second theme focuses on pedagogical practices and classroom culture. Sub-themes
include foreign teaching methods, open-ended assignments, independent learning,
critical thinking, lack of international content, and unfamiliar mannerisms.
Foreign
Teaching Methods
Many
international students are confused by host-country teaching methods and learning
expectations. Research consistently demonstrates that international students
often experience surprise, frustration, and even anxiety when confronted with
Westernized interactive learning methods, such as active learning strategies
(e.g., including in-class discussions, debates, and group work activities),
hands-on learning (e.g., activities emphasizing practical application and
experiential learning), and dynamic assessment methods (individualized homework
assignments, oral presentations, and creative projects) (Bai & Wang, 2022a;
Cena et al., 2021; Leong, 2017; Newsome & Cooper,
2017; Preston & Boateng, 2024; Preston & Wang, 2017). In Heng's
(2023) study, 18 Chinese undergraduate students in the United States experienced
confusion and discomfort with dominant pedagogical approaches. They attributed
this discomfort to the stark contrast between the Chinese emphasis on rote
memorization, teacher-centered instruction, and respect for authority in their
home country and the more student-centered, interactive learning environment
prevalent in American higher education. In an American study involving eight
graduate students in the Education and Tourism fields, international students
were baffled by having a grade partially associated with active oral
participation during class time. In their home country, active participation was
reflected in written midterms and final examinations (Sato
& Hodge, 2018).
Open-Ended
Instructions
Many
international students find themselves initially surprised or even overwhelmed
by the level of academic freedom and autonomy afforded to students while
completing assignments. In Le et al.’s (2017) study involving 22 Vietnamese
students in Australia, participants reported difficulties in adapting to the
more student-centered, passive pedagogical approach of instructors,
particularly when encountering open-ended homework assignments that emphasized
independent learning and critical thinking. Participants anticipated a more
teacher-centered approach to instruction, expecting their professors to
primarily lecture and provide assignments with clear and direct answers. In
Newsome & Cooper’s (2017) study of 18 international students at a British
university, participants expressed discomfort with the ambiguity inherent in
assignments where instructors provided only broad guidelines. In Bai and Wang's
(2022b) study, international students sought guidance from their instructor
regarding the appropriate format for completing an assignment. However, the
instructor indicated that it was the students’ responsibility to determine the
correct approach. For many international students, the shift towards
personalized and creative learning demands can be a significant source of
confusion and frustration, potentially impacting their academic performance and
overall well-being (Heng, 2018; Kaya, 2020; Le et al., 2017; Lindner &
Margetts, 2022; Liu, 2016; Matsunaga et al., 2021; Newsome & Cooper, 2017).
Independent
Learning
In
many English-medium postsecondary institutions, innovative pedagogical
approaches often emphasize student autonomy, placing significant responsibility
on students for independent reading and learning. In Jackson and Chen's (2018)
study, undergraduate international Chinese students reported feeling
overwhelmed by the volume and nature of independent reading assignments, which
were crucial for active participation in ensuing interactive classroom discussions.
Freeman and Li’s (2019) research with six international students in Australia
revealed a stark contrast in host and host country course loads. In their home
countries, international students were accustomed to enrolling in a
significantly higher number of courses per semester, typically ranging from 10
to 15. At their host Australian university, they had four courses per semester.
However, a major challenge for many international students was the increased
level of independent learning required within each course, demanding
significantly more effort and time compared to their prior educational
experiences. This included key skills such as independently selecting
assignment topics, conducting academic research, and completing creative
projects (Freeman & Li, 2019). For Lucas’s (2019) narrative research
involving Asian international graduate students in the United States, the
instructor required international students to be inquisitive, independent thinkers
in their written assignments. These studies collectively demonstrate that,
ironically, successful academic integration for international students
necessitates an ability to independently complete schoolwork.
Critical
Thinking
In
many Western, individualistic cultures, the ability to engage in critical
analysis and express oneself through insightful writing is highly valued
(Lucas, 2019). English-medium postsecondary institutions tend to prioritize the
development of critical thinking and writing skills, integrating them across
their curricula. Research consistently demonstrates that many international
students encounter significant challenges in effectively integrating critical
thinking skills into their academic assignments (Jaffar,
2025; Lucas, 2019; Samanhudi, 2021; Zhong & Cheng, 2021). This
critical thinking ability encompasses the capacity to reason, judge, analyze,
argue, justify, and effectively communicate information. In contrast, the
predominant collectivist cultures of many Asian countries often prioritize
conformity and social harmony, which may not always align with the emphasis on
independent creativity prevalent in some Western educational contexts. Li's
(2016) qualitative study with 20 undergraduate and graduate international
students revealed that participants struggled to grasp the concept of “critical
writing,” highlighting potential differences in cultural understandings of
academic discourse. In this study, some participants,
either consciously or unconsciously, associated critical thinking and writing
with challenging authority figures (i.e., instructors and established
scholars). This perception, prioritizing respect for authority and harmonious
relationships, can hinder the development of critical thinking skills in some
international students. In other words, openly questioning a teacher’s ideas or
critiquing subject matter may be perceived as culturally disrespectful (Rao,
2017). Many international students tend to harmoniously agree with instructors,
people of authority, classmates, and/or published literature (Zhong &
Cheng, 2021), which is often not conducive to critical analysis of content.
Lack of
International Curriculum Content
Research suggests
that international students studying abroad often have limited opportunities to
engage with curriculum content from their home countries, which can both hinder
their understanding of global perspectives and their ability to connect their
own cultural experiences. In Heng's (2018) study, international
students reported significant challenges in comprehending course content due to
their unfamiliarity with the host country’s cultural context. Issues included a
lack of knowledge about prominent authors, local companies, national historical
events, political figures, and references to local religions. In Gopal’s (2016)
Canadian research, the international student reported experiencing a graduate
curriculum that predominantly focused on information and perspectives from
North American and English-speaking countries, neglecting global perspectives.
Moreover, when participants attempted to apply course concepts to their home
country contexts, the instructor sometimes implicitly or explicitly positioned
the Western educational system as superior, potentially hindering critical
engagement with alternative perspectives and fostering a sense of cultural
dissonance among the students. Research by Ai (2017) and Lyken-Segosebe
(2017) suggested that acculturative pressure can arise from Western-centric
biases within some academic settings, potentially leading international
students to feel compelled to conform to dominant perspectives and values. However,
research shows that international students want their culture recognized in the
host curriculum (e.g., Guo & Guo, 2017; Liu, 2017; Taveres, 2024). In a Canadian study involving 26 undergraduate students,
Guo and Guo (2017) found a significant discrepancy between the program’s
advertised focus on optimizing the experiences of international students and
the students’ actual experiences. Participants reported feeling disconnected
from the curriculum, citing a lack of relevance and a limited ability to
connect course content to their own cultural experiences. Both Preston
& Wang (2017) (Canadian research with 21 international students) and Wang
and Freed’s (2021) (an American-based study with 10 international graduate
students) found that participants rarely, if ever, encountered references to
their own cultures within course materials or discussions. Wang & Freed
(2021) suggested that instructors teaching international students may have
limited knowledge or experience regarding the cultural and lived realities of
their students.
Priya and Tapis’ (2016) research, which involved 10
international students studying in the United States, offered numerous examples
of how a lack of cultural consideration can significantly impact learning
experiences and academic engagement. As part of a business course, one
participant shared an experience in which students were tasked with creating a
business plan for a funeral home. One international student struggled to
comprehend the concept of a funeral home, as such an institution was
nonexistent in their home country. Another student from India explained that in
their culture, death was rarely discussed, making the assignment both
unsettling and distressing. This highlights a key challenge for international
students: while studying abroad is intended to provide valuable experience in
the host country, it often comes with the pressure to abandon their cultural
heritage and fully adopt the norms and practices of the host institution.
Cultural
Mannerisms
Culture can be defined as the shared and accepted
language, beliefs, attitudes, values, customs, behaviors, symbols, and
artifacts that distinguish a particular group of people. Cultural
differences can significantly impact communication and understanding. In Li's
(2016) study, some international students expressed surprise or discomfort with
certain classroom practices observed in their host country, such as
instructors' casual attire, sitting on classroom tables, and allowing students
to eat in class. Also, in this study, international students found it strange
when instructors utilized humor, engaged in casual conversation with students,
or promoted a relaxed and informal classroom atmosphere. Heng (2018) reported
that some international students experienced difficulties in understanding and
appreciating the humor used by their instructors. Cultural differences in humor
styles and communication norms can lead to misunderstandings and potential
feelings of exclusion for international students. These interactions, while
common in some Western educational contexts, often differ significantly from
the more formal and hierarchical teacher-student relationships prevalent in
their home cultures. Some international students find it difficult to read
cursive or handwritten English, either written on the whiteboard or as feedback
on their papers (Kerridge & Simpson, 2021). In Newsome and Cooper’s (2017) research, one participant
described feeling uncomfortable addressing the male instructor by his first
name, a practice that differed significantly from their cultural norms, where
addressing teachers with formal titles such as “Sir” is considered appropriate.
This finding aligns with other research (Elliot et al., 2016; Jackson
& Chen, 2018). In an Australian study, a Chinese participant
observed that local students frequently interrupted the instructor with
questions during class, which contrasted sharply with their own cultural norms
where students typically defer to the instructor and ask questions after class
(Bai & Wang, 2022b). This observation highlights the potential for cultural
misunderstandings in classroom settings, as student-teacher interaction styles
can vary significantly across different cultural contexts.
Sociocultural Issues
Across
multiple studies, a third key finding is that international students frequently
encounter a range of sociocultural challenges, including social isolation,
feelings of exclusion, identity tension, and potential experiences of
discrimination. These challenges can significantly impact their academic
performance, social integration, and overall confidence and well-being.
Social Disconnection and Alienation
A prominent theme
emerging from peer-reviewed research highlights the significant sociocultural
challenges faced by international students (Arkoudis
et al., 2019; Avenido, 2023; Contreras-Aguirre & Gonzalez, 2017; Guo &
Guo, 2017; Newsome & Cooper, 2016; Tang et al., 2018; Tran, 2020). Preston
and Wang (2017) found that, although most international students arrived in the
host country with aspirations of forming local friendships, many ultimately
experienced a sense of social isolation from domestic students as they
progressed through the program. Arkoudis et al.’s
(2019) mixed-method research, which studied 393 undergraduate international
students at an Australian university, revealed significant social fragmentation
between domestic and international students, both on- and off-campus. Notably, in
this study, only about 20% of the participants reported having a local friend,
highlighting the extent of social disconnection. Some international students
reported that, at first, they perceived local students as approachable and
friendly; however, over time, they came to view this initial warmth as largely
superficial and lacking genuine authenticity (Newman & Cooper, 2016). Liu’s
(2017) narrative research, conducted with five undergraduate and graduate
students in British Columbia, Canada, revealed a striking lack of social
integration; participants consistently expressed that they did not have any
local friends. Tran (2020) found that international students consistently
identified the absence of local friends as the most dissatisfying and isolating
aspect of their experience abroad.
Tang et al.’s (2018) American study, which involved
focus group interviews with 60 international students in Business and
Engineering, revealed that, while most participants expressed a strong desire
to network with local students, they faced significant challenges in accessing
these social circles and overcoming sociocultural barriers. In other studies,
some international students did not interact with locals, because international
students had difficulty with certain social behaviors and norms including the
use (sometime excess) of alcohol (Elliot, et al., 2016). Furthermore, research
by Liu (2016) and Wang (2016) demonstrated that limited language proficiency
serves as a significant barrier, severely hindering the development of social
connections in social circles. When international students experience social
disconnection with local students, they often gravitate toward forming
friendships with peers from their own cultural background, seeking familiarity
and shared experiences (Li, 2016). Furthermore, Li (2016) explained that while
international students strive to maintain their own sociocultural values and
behaviors, local students often expect them to assimilate to the norms and
customs of the host country, creating a tension between cultural preservation
and social integration. When their cultural background
appears to hold little value in the host country, they often feel marginalized
and disconnected, as if they are outsiders (Alqudayri & Gounko,
2018; Tavares, 2021). When international students encounter social
divisions with local students, it often exacerbates feelings of loneliness and intensifies
homesickness (Hunter-Johnston & Niu 2019; Meade et al., 2022; Park et al.,
2017).
Personal
Marginalization and Discrimination
Another
key thematic issue in the experiences of international students in
postsecondary education is discrimination. In Igwe et al.’s (2020) British
study involving 45 international business undergraduate students, group
discussions were often dominated by local students, effectively marginalizing
international students and limiting their opportunities for active
participation. In Matsunaga et al.'s (2021) qualitative research with six
Japanese undergraduate students studying in Australia, participants reported
feeling that their contributions in class were often sidelined, overlooked, or
interrupted by other students, diminishing the international student’s sense of
academic agency and inclusion. In Gopal’s (2016) study, international graduate
students reported feeling ostracized when attempting to engage in discussions,
as their accents and nonverbal communication, including body language, were
often perceived as barriers, hindering their ability to express their ideas and
connect with others. Other research has shown that international students often
feel their perspectives are disregarded in class due to their accents or
language proficiency, further contributing to their sense of exclusion (Guo
& Guo, 2017; Wekullo, 2019). Additional research
reveals that international students frequently feel ignored, isolated, and
shunned by local students and the broader community, deepening their sense of
alienation and exclusion (Arkoudis, 2019; Yakaboski et al., 2018; Yeo et al., 2019). In Ge et al.'s
(2019) Canadian ethnographic study involving 12 international students,
participants reported that some instructors consistently prioritized responses
from local students over those of international students, reinforcing a sense
of marginalization in the classroom.
In Ritter’s (2016) study, which involved 47 interviews
with international students, participants reported witnessing and/or
experiencing racial discrimination from domestic peers. This discrimination
manifested as a racial hierarchy, further entrenching feelings of inequality
and exclusion. Domestic students were observed to selectively interact with
students from certain countries, while avoiding engagement with students from
other countries, reinforcing social divisions and exclusion. In an Australian study involving Saudi Arabian students,
which included 100 survey respondents and seven qualitative interviews, the
findings revealed that the
majority of participants
experienced discrimination (Alsahafi &
Seong-Chul, 2017). Van Horne et al. (2018) conducted a large-scale
quantitative study involving nearly 4,000 undergraduate international students
across nine American universities. The study found that, compared to their
domestic peers, international students reported a significantly lower sense of
belonging to their host campus and a diminished sense of respect while on
campus.
However, other research presents mixed findings
regarding discrimination against international students. In Mwangi et al.'s
(2019) qualitative study involving 33 Black international undergraduate and
graduate students across various American universities, many participants
shared experiences of racism and discrimination, while others reported that
they did not encounter such challenges, highlighting the varied and complex
nature of these experiences. Guo and Guo’s (2017) research revealed that while
Latino students did not report experiencing discrimination, other international
students in the study did, further emphasizing the varying experiences of
discrimination based on cultural and ethnic backgrounds.
Arafeh (2020)’s research with 10 Saudi
Arabian in an American university revealed that they experienced “positive
culture shock” (p. 750). These women shared that while studying in an American
environment, they did not feel singled out or judged for wearing traditional
attire. Instead, they felt that their teachers and classmates showed them
respect, fostering an inclusive and accepting atmosphere. This information
suggests that international students experience varying levels of
discrimination, ranging from none to high, with these
experiences often differing based on culture, race, and gender.
Campus
Discrimination
In
many ways, international students face campus discrimination, particularly when
compared to local students. International students often encounter fewer
opportunities for research internships, part-time jobs, and other academic or
professional experiences, exacerbating their sense of exclusion and limiting
their academic and career prospects (Ge et al., 2019; Liu, 2017; Singh, 2023).
In Hunter-Johnson and Niu's (2019) study involving 15 Bahamian graduate
students at American universities, participants reported experiencing a lack of
financial support, limited teaching opportunities, and insufficient access to
research opportunities provided by their host institutions. In a mixed-method study involving 28 survey respondents
and six interviewees with international students in the United States,
participants consistently expressed frustration with on-campus employment. They
reported feeling uninformed about the employment process and lacking the social
capital necessary to secure quality local references, which further thwarted
their ability to access meaningful job opportunities (Gautam et al., 2016). Marangell et al. (2018) explained that many
international students find it difficult to secure employment due to working
regulations, lack of familiarity with employment processes, English language
competency, or lack of previous work experience in the host country. Cultural
discrimination manifested on campus in various ways. For instance, in Tavares’
(2024) Canadian postsecondary study, the university cafeteria offered limited
food options, with international cuisine being particularly scarce. Despite
being required to purchase meal plans, international students faced dietary
challenges, which compounded their sense of exclusion.
Summary of Findings
The
purpose of this literature review is to describe the educational experiences of
international students enrolled in English-medium postsecondary institutions. A
critical analysis of research literature highlights that international students’
academic English proficiency significantly impacts their educational
experiences. Key challenges include understanding written and spoken English,
overcoming difficulties with local and foreign accents, interpreting regional
jargon, and adapting to rapid speech. Many students, particularly those from
non-English speaking backgrounds, face obstacles in academic reading and
writing, as well as speaking in class. Anxiety, reticence, and lack of
confidence about speaking English hinder their participation in classroom
discussions. Additionally, international students struggle with Western
academic writing conventions, such as clear argumentation, citation styles, and
essay structures. These language barriers are major factors affecting their
academic success and overall experience.
Many international students face challenges adapting
to the pedagogical approaches of host institutions, which often differ
significantly from those in their home countries. Research shows that students
can experience confusion, frustration, and anxiety when confronted with Western
teaching methods, including active learning, hands-on learning, and dynamic
assessments like oral presentations and group work. Additionally, the academic
freedom and autonomy in completing open-ended assignments can be overwhelming, because
these students are often accustomed to teacher-centered approaches with clear
and direct instructions. The emphasis on independent learning, critical
thinking, and student autonomy in Western education can also be difficult for
students from more collectivist cultures. Furthermore, international students
may feel disconnected from the curriculum, which often lacks content relevant
to their own cultures, leading to a sense of cultural dissonance. Cultural
mannerisms, such as informal classroom practices and differences in
communication styles, can also create misunderstandings and discomfort. These
factors, collectively, highlight the need for a better understanding of the
diverse learning needs of international students to improve their academic
integration.
International students often face significant
sociocultural challenges in host countries, including social division,
isolation, and marginalization. Research shows that many international students
struggle to form meaningful connections with local students, leading to
feelings of loneliness and homesickness. Despite desires for social
integration, students frequently encounter barriers such as language
proficiency, cultural differences, and varying social behaviors, which
hinder their ability to connect with domestic peers. Moreover, when
international students seek to preserve their cultural values, they may face
pressure to assimilate, further exacerbating tensions between cultural
preservation and integration. Experiences of personal marginalization and
discrimination, whether related to accents, nonverbal communication, or racial
biases, are common, with many students feeling excluded or overlooked in
academic and social settings. While some students report positive experiences,
the overall picture reveals that social divisions and campus discrimination
remain. The complex nature of these challenges highlights the importance of
fostering a more inclusive and supportive environment for international
students.
Future Research
The
international student population is inherently diverse and multifaceted,
necessitating the provision of tailored educational services and inclusive
strategies to effectively support their unique needs and foster a truly
inclusive environment. To effectively address and cater to the diverse needs of
this student population, targeted and in-depth research is essential. Such
research will provide valuable insights into the unique challenges and
experiences faced by international students, enabling institutions to develop
more informed, responsive, and tailored support systems that better serve this
heterogeneous group.
To begin, the experiences of immigrant students, as
well as those with refugee status and spousal sponsorship, remain significantly
understudied (D’Cruz, 2022). There is a critical gap in understanding the
unique educational needs, career aspirations, and personal challenges faced by
these students. What are their specific barriers to academic success? How do
their backgrounds shape their career trajectories and personal goals?
Addressing these questions is essential for developing targeted interventions
and support mechanisms that promote equitable opportunities and outcomes for
these often-marginalized student populations.
While some research has explored the unique needs of
Chinese international students (e.g., Preston & Wang, 2017), there remains
a lack of focused studies on the lived experiences of students from other major
home countries, such as India and various African nations. Research that
specifically examines the experiences of international students from these diverse
geographic regions would provide valuable, context-rich insights into their
challenges, needs, and aspirations. Such studies would enhance understanding of
the complexities and nuances of the international student experience,
ultimately informing more tailored support systems and strategies for students
from a broader range of cultural backgrounds.
Furthermore, scholars emphasize that meaningful social
engagement between international and host students is essential for fostering
the academic success and personal well-being of international students (e.g., Ammigan, 2019). This raises an important research question:
What types of curricular, extracurricular, and social interactions occur both
inside and outside the classroom between international and host students, and
how, if at all, do these interactions shape the educational outcomes and lived
experiences of international students? Investigating these dynamics can provide
a deeper understanding of how cross-cultural engagement impacts students’
academic development, social integration, and overall adjustment to life in the
host country, ultimately, informing strategies for enhancing the international
student experience.
Future research should expand beyond traditional
academic programs to explore the diverse experiences of international students
in non-degree pathways. For instance, what are the experiences of international
students who engage in short courses, such as summer programs or bridge
programs, and how do these experiences influence their academic, professional,
and personal development?
Equally important, it is crucial to examine the lived
experiences of international students who choose to discontinue their
educational programs—understanding the factors that lead to such decisions can
offer valuable insights into the challenges and barriers faced by this group,
ultimately contributing to more effective support structures for all
international students.
Lastly, to more accurately assess the long-term impact
and effectiveness of postsecondary education, longitudinal studies that track
the career trajectories and lifestyle outcomes of international students after
graduation are essential.
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